Skip to main content

Latest Analysis

Independent analysis, commentary and investigations on Africa, the Great Lakes Region and international accountability.

[AfricaRealities.com] Davos Forum: Rwanda must transform the present before embarking on transforming tomorrow

 


The Rwanda must transform the present before embarking on transforming tomorrow

By Jean P Ndindamahina,21January2016


Yesterday during the Davos' economic forum "transforming tomorrow" I watched with match enthusiasm what the panel members were to say and among them was President Kagame who have ruled Rwanda over two decades and other panel members were four chief executive officers Cheryl Sandburg (Facebook), Zachary Bookman(Open Gov ), Satya Nadella(Microsoft), Annand Mahindra(Mahindra Group) and the moderator was Andrew R.Sorkin who works as columnist for the new York Times.

These four executives' officers were talking about how their companies are more involved in the work to transform the world and the people who live in it through their companies' emerging technology and mostly the use of internet that connects people together and how this can benefit the world as whole.

The Facebook chief executive officer Sheryl Sandburg explained the importance of connectivity by giving some examples of women who were able to spread their ideas, opinions and creativity through the use of technology and by being able to get informed by being connected to data. And also Sheryl questioned whether human are going to change in terms of hope or in terms of fear. Is technological innovation good for tomorrow? Is human intelligence going to be taken over by the use of technology? Does Technological revolution means all jobs are destroyed?

For those in developed world have already experienced the power of technology where human labour have been replaced by machines which really means less people in work places. There is self-services on both internet and on the counter, human interactions between people in the office and those in their homes have been taken over by automated technology, people are spending more and more time talking to man-made machines than the real people hence I think the real long-term impact of all this kind of technological innovation has to be assessed to give more hope of better tomorrow and not fear and those are challenges for those who already have that use of technology

For Rwanda, the use of technology is only limited to privileged elite as those Rwandans citizens who are unprivileged and mostly live in remote villages around the country has no access to water and electricity. They are still living in the darkness for them to understand what even tomorrow means when in fact, they are still to discover their present.

As Sheryl mentioned, for someone in United states to be able to use internet and access Facebook, it cost at least $1 and I find that to be true because in Britain I get charged at least $1.5 a day for private internet which can be even more costly when using mobile phone data or public internet where you get charged per hour which cannot be less than $6 per hour. With 89% Rwandans living under $1 a day, was the president Paul Kagame in the right economic forum that speaks on behalf of Rwandan people?

My question has been the balance between income and connectivity. How do Rwandans will be able to access the world class technology when in fact they still earn less than $1 a day. Will they be able to use all their income to access data on internet? The answer is no hence I think the rwandan people are still far behind for them to benefit from cloud technology, only those elites who are already rich which means in Rwanda and may be in other some African states, rich people will continue to be rich while poor people continue to sink further into poverty because unlike rich elites, majority Rwandans are not connected to the outside world, they only understand their village and their leader.

When President kagame was asked on the failure of connectivity in emerging market such as Rwanda, he rather looked defending his "I don't know the answer" as he said " Failing people will continue to fail" I wondered how this matched with the objective of the forum which was to giving hope to industries and societies through the transformation of tomorrow! He started going out of the topic talking about government policy which he understands a little to give more incoherence argument on the influence of emerging technology.

The president Kagame rather became a boring member among those in the panel and those in the room felt it and even may be the moderator felt that actually president Kagame was in the wrong economic forum as he was watched by those in room and those who were sat next to him talking about what he does not really understand and when he was asked by the moderator whether the failure was the only way to go, he responded "Absolutely, struggle will be there, support will be there…" come on, what this is to do with emerging technology? If it was job interview he would not have passed but well for him, he has managed to change constitution to allow him more years in office and office that he still holds today since 2000.

In all economic revolutions and based on the fact that the developed world is about to embark on fourth technological revolution, Rwanda is skipped at all time. Rwanda as a country is still to achieve fist revolution which is political revolution which makes me wonder why president of Rwanda was among those who were discussing the pros and cons of this fourth technological revolution which would be facilitated by strong economic and political stability –finally I don't blame President Kagame for him struggling to give competent answers to all questions that were put before him! I rather blame those who have booked a place for him as a member of the panel not a member of audience.

When President Kagame was asked whether technological transparency is the one that makes Rwanda have more women in parliament and the cabinet, President Kagame responded "It is a question of choices" simply because Rwanda's policies don't need necessary to have to depend on technology and instead of answering the question he rather revealed the truth that actually Rwanda women are in the government for political reasons because it is not women in parliament who advocate some rights, ideas and causes and they are in the government to defend them but rather women who are in the parliament for political reason of strengthening cult of personality of President Kagame and his government and some of these women are happy in the government or in cabinet because they need work in order to overcome all life burdens in Rwanda.

The truth was put out by Cheryl Sandburg when she talks about women issues in government or in other organisations that are there but can't make decisions and that is the fact for Rwanda. In Rwanda 64 % Women in the government and in the parliament looks very impressive but the truth is that; any decision making is still out of their hands and even if they would think of an idea they would not bring it out in case it is considered to be against an aggressive leadership.

The current Rwanda as President Kagame said during the forum is under an ideological driven leadership that is not open for democratic processes and shockingly, those women in Rwanda's parliament have no access to data and most of them if not all, are mediocrely educated. Majority of those women are those who studied in 70s when computers were not readily available as today, their ability to access the world technological data and information is limited hence majority of these women have no connectivity to the world and having these majorities of women in parliament allows the dictatorship to flourish with fewer struggles.

President Kagame also requested a question directed to Sheryl Sandberg that she would have responded to well about Facebook investment in people if it was not advertising their company rather than helping and once again President Kagame did not have a clue why he felt he was more fit to answer the question than Sheryl Sandberg and other CEO as he struggled to match his people's income, capability to today's technological use triggering the moderator to give him a left hand shake at the end of the forum panel. 

It is true in Rwanda; people use Facebook data on their mobile phone free of charge. In the UK I fear to use my mobile phone because it is more expensive option as I get charged by per data I use while in Rwanda, a person can be on his or her mobile phone all day using Facebook and communicating with the rest of the world which is helping the people of Rwanda to connect to the rest of the world and more people in Rwanda are now starting to join Facebook in mass as a way to connect with friends, family and the rest of the outside world but still, their connection on Facebook is still heavily controlled by the government that closely monitors individuals' communication on his or her social media.so everyone in Rwanda becomes rather more careful of what they say and how they say it. They are not free to express their ideas and opinion freely on any social media and some of them chose not to connect to the internet in case, they become attempted to break the silence or in case their ideas and opinion are wrongly perceived by the elites in the government.

Rwanda should embark on political change and seek political stability before anything else. As we speak right now, the Rwanda's constitution has been demolished and replaced by the constitution which would allow President Kagame to keep being booked in the wrong forum in the name of Rwanda for life. With political revolution Rwanda will move on in the best economic direction but for now, for Rwanda to participate in the world forum on current and future technological issues and challenges, it is just increasing the number of the panel members and to allow President Kagame to keep lacking an answer to questions put before him and ofcurse that can be embarrassing especially when in front of well up to date audiences.

Read the new constitution as it is published by  IGIHE


###
"Hate Cannot Drive Out Hate. Only Love Can Do That", Dr. Martin Luther King.
###

__._,_.___

Posted by: Nzinink <nzinink@yahoo.com>
Reply via web post Reply to sender Reply to group Start a New Topic Messages in this topic (1)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The hate of men will pass, and dictators die, and the power they took from the people will return to the people. And so long as men die, liberty will never perish.
I have loved justice and hated iniquity: therefore I die in exile.
The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men.
When the white man came we had the land and they had the bibles; now they have the land and we have the bibles.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Voice of the Poor, the Weak and Powerless.

-----------------------------------------------------------
Post message:  AfricaRealities@yahoogroups.com
Subscribe: AfricaRealities-subscribe@yahoogroups.com
Unsubscribe: AfricaRealities-unsubscribe@yahoogroups.com
List owner: AfricaRealities-owner@yahoogroups.com
__________________________________________________________________

Please consider the environment before printing this email or any attachments.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-http://www.africarealities.com/
-https://www.facebook.com/africarealities
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find  Friends in Africa:
http://www.datinginafrica.com/

.

__,_._,___

Comments

Support Our Work Now !

Africa Realities Media is independent. Your support helps us expose injustice, challenge silence and produce evidence-based analysis on Africa and the Great Lakes Region.

Recent Posts

Show more
Africa Realities Media offre un espace aux écrivains, chercheurs, experts, activistes, voix communautaires, militants, analystes et personnes ayant une expérience vécue qui souhaitent contribuer à des contenus réfléchis, responsables et courageux sur les changements nécessaires dans la région des Grands Lacs, ainsi que sur les réalités politiques, économiques, culturelles et sociales africaines souvent ignorées, minimisées ou mal représentées. Nos articles et vidéos visent à ouvrir le débat, renforcer la sensibilisation, encourager la pensée critique et favoriser une réflexion plus profonde sur les réalités vécues par les populations africaines. Nous voulons aider les peuples de la région des Grands Lacs à mieux comprendre leurs droits, notamment leurs droits humains, leur droit au développement, leur droit à la dignité, à la sécurité, au bien-être et à une vie meilleure. À travers nos contenus, nous cherchons également à rappeler aux décideurs, aux institutions publiques, aux acteurs régionaux et internationaux, ainsi qu’aux responsables politiques, leur devoir de transparence, de responsabilité et de redevabilité envers les populations qu’ils prétendent servir. Notre objectif est de contribuer à une culture de vérité, de justice, de participation citoyenne et de protection égale pour tous les peuples africains.

Why We Exist

Many abuses facing African people are committed by African states, ruling elites, armed groups, military forces and security services. But these abuses are often sustained by international silence, Western lobbying, trade interests, migration deals, mineral access, diplomatic partnerships and unequal global accountability. Africa Realities Media exposes that system.

Lived Experience Matters

Survivors, displaced communities, refugees, families affected by repression, journalists, activists, women, young people and diaspora voices are not passive subjects. They are knowledge holders. Their experiences must shape policy, advocacy, journalism and public debate. The people closest to injustice are often closest to the solutions.

Our Principle

Africa Realities Media is rooted in one principle: African lives deserve equal truth, equal justice and equal protection.

Popular Posts

[RwandaLibre] Itangazo ry'inama yahuje amashyaka i Buruseli kuwa 01/02/2014 -

  http://www.veritasinfo.fr/m/article-122363461.html Itangazo ry'inama yahuje amashyaka i Buruseli kuwa 01/02/2014 Nk'uko byari biteganyijwe, kuri uyu wa gatandatu tariki ya 01/02/2014, i Buruseli mu Bubiligi hateraniye inama y'amashyaka atavuga rumwe n'ubutegetsi bwa Perezida Paul Kagame. Ku mashyaka icumi yari yatumiwe, ayabonetse mu nama ni atandatu (60%), ari yo : 1. Forces Démocratiques Unifiées (FDU-Inkingi) ; 2. Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda (FDLR) ; 3. Pacte Démocratique du Peuple (PDP-Imanzi) ; 4. Parti pour la Démocratie au Rwanda (PDR-Ihumure) ; 5. Parti Social (PS-Imberakuri) ; 6. Rwandan Dream Initiative (RDI-Rwanda Rwiza). Ihuriro FCLR - Ubumwe naryo ryari rihagarariwe muri iyo nama.   Mu gutangira inama, abayijemo batoye umuyobozi wayo. Bamaze gusuzuma no kwemeza umurongo w'ibyigwa, bemeje ko muri iki gihe, ubufatanye  bw'amashyaka ya opposition ari ngombwa cyane  ...

The FDLR Myth: How Rwanda Weaponises a Diminished Threat to Justify Occupation

The FDLR Myth: How Rwanda Weaponises a Diminished Threat to Justify Occupation Investigation Exposes Contradictions in Rwanda's Security Narrative For over a decade, Rwanda has justified its military presence in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo by citing threats from the FDLR, a Hutu militia group linked to the 1994 genocide. But an investigation into FDLR's actual capabilities, Rwanda's military operations, and patterns of violence reveals a narrative that does not match reality. The FDLR threat, whilst real, has been systematically exaggerated and manipulated to justify objectives that have nothing to do with the militia group. Introduction The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) occupies a central position in Rwanda's justification for military intervention in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. For more than two decades, Rwandan authorities have portrayed the militia group as an existential threat requiring sustaine...

[RwandaLibre] Re: Itangazo ry'inama yahuje amashyaka i Buruseli kuwa 01/02/2014 -

  @Mbera. Urakoze gutanga ibisobanuro birambuye kuri iyi ngingo. Ndagirango cyokora nkosore aho wafifitse nkana ugamije kujijisha rubanda.   Uragira uti: 1- [Hari ]urubuga rwa internet rw'umwimerere rwashyizweho muri 2007 http://www.fdu-rwanda.org/  n'urundi rubuga rwashinzwe n'abasigaye bakorera mu nzego bashyizeho bo nyuma y'aho Présidente agiriye mu Rwanda, arirwo http://www.fdu-rwanda.com/  rwashinzwe muri 2011. Nk'umuntu wamye uba Umunyamabanga mukuru wa FDU-Inkingi ukaba n'umuvugizi wayo kandi ukaba igikomeje kubyiyuta n'ubwo zahinduye imirishyo, wagombye kuba uzi ko Original website ya FDU-Inkingi yari  www.fdu-udf.org nk'uko bigararara muri iri tangazo ryo kuwa 23 Kamena 2010 umbere y'amakimbirane yatangiye muri january 2011: Nta kandida wigenga uzava muri FDU http://www.victoire2010.com/uploads/media/UMUKANDIDA_WA__FDU_01.pdf Kuba ruriya rubuga rundi rwaragiyeho nyuma byo ntawe utabizi kandi byar...

The Aggressor’s Complaint: Why Rwanda’s “Biased” US Sanctions Argument Echoes Russia

Kigali wants Washington to punish Congo too. But a ceasefire that leaves the occupier in place is not peace; it is occupation without noise. African lives are not worth less. African deaths are not normal. Western interests must never become a licence to kill African people. Introduction: A Familiar Complaint On 29 June 2026, Rwanda’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Olivier Nduhungirehe, sat before the cameras of France 24 and declared that his country was “disappointed by the increasingly biased US mediation” in the conflict with the Democratic Republic of Congo. He asked why sanctions had targeted only Rwanda. He called the measures unfair, one-sided and counterproductive. Weeks earlier, President Paul Kagame had told Jeune Afrique that sanctions and threats were insults thrown at Rwanda, and accused Washington of exerting heavy pressure on Rwanda while treating the DRC more delicately. The grievance sounds reasonable until you remember where you have heard it before. Since 2022, the Kr...

THE DUCLERT REPORT: A Comprehensive Critical Analysis

  Political Bias — Archival Failures — Racial Framing — Neocolonialist Process — Historical Distortion June 2026 Note on citations: In-text references in blue italics indicate page numbers from the Duclert Report (vie-publique.fr/files/rapport/pdf/284672.pdf, 2021 English summary). Introduction The Duclert Report, formally titled France, Rwanda and the Tutsi Genocide (1990–1994) , was submitted to President Emmanuel Macron on 26 March 2021 by the Research Commission on French Archives Relating to Rwanda and the Tutsi Genocide, chaired by Professor Vincent Duclert. Produced after two years of archival work and running to nearly 1,000 pages, it was presented as a landmark in historical transparency: the first time France had opened its state archives to systematic scholarly examination of its role in one of the worst genocides of the twentieth century. The commission examined archives from the Presidency of the Republic, the Prime Minister’s office, the Ministry of Europe a...

LE RAPPORT DUCLERT: Une analyse critique exhaustive

  B iais politique — Défaillances archivistiques — Cadrage racial — Processus néocolonial — Distorsion historique. Juin 2026 Note sur les citations : les références en italique bleu indiquent les numéros de pages du Rapport Duclert (vie-publique.fr/files/rapport/pdf/284672.pdf, résumé en anglais, 2021). Introduction Le Rapport Duclert, intitulé officiellement La France, le Rwanda et le génocide des Tutsi (1990–1994) , a été remis au président Emmanuel Macron le 26 mars 2021 par la Commission de recherche sur les archives françaises relatives au Rwanda et au génocide des Tutsi, présidée par le professeur Vincent Duclert. Produit après deux ans de travail archivistique et comptant près de mille pages, il a été présenté comme un moment fondateur de la transparence historique : la première fois que la France ouvrait ses archives d’État à un examen scientifique systématique de son rôle dans l’un des génocides les plus meurtriers du vingtième siècle. La comm...

Rwanda: Victoire Ingabire’s Speech and Quotes

http://www.victoire-ingabire.com/Eng/victoires-quotes/ Victoire Ingabire's Speech and Quotes I agree that there was a genocide by Hutu extremists against the Tutsis, that is the reality. The people who did this need to face justice. But there were also other crimes against humanity, including the killing of Hutus. I don't believe in violence and war is not the solution to the problems that face this country. People say there's stability in Rwanda but this stability is based on repression … We need stability based on freedom. I don't understand how democratic countries can remain friends with a government that doesn't allow democracy. The democratic UK is supporting a dictatorship. Shall I die or live, be detained or released what we have achieved will not go back. This movement is stronger than me. Remanding me in captivity or silencing my voice can only postpone the revolution. It cannot stop the movement. Unity and Reconciliation Speech at Gisozi Genocide Memori...

Analyse de l'audition de M Dacian Cioloș, candidat au poste de Secrétaire général de la Francophonie

  Le 30 juin 2026, pour la première fois en cinquante-six ans d'existence de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, les candidats au poste de Secrétaire général ont été auditionnés publiquement devant les ministres des Affaires étrangères des 53 États membres de plein droit, réunis en Conférence ministérielle extraordinaire à Paris. Parmi les quatre prétendants au mandat 2027-2030, qui sera attribué par les chefs d'État au XXe Sommet de la Francophonie à Phnom Penh les 15 et 16 novembre 2026, figure un profil inédit : Dacian Cioloș, ancien Premier ministre de Roumanie, ancien commissaire européen à l'Agriculture et ancien président du groupe Renew au Parlement européen, seul candidat non africain de la course. Cet article, premier d'une série de cinq consacrée aux auditions, analyse la prestation de M. Cioloș sur huit axes : la vision, l'innovation, le développement des communautés locales, la promotion de la langue française, les conflits et la s...

Analyse de l'audition de Mme Juliana Lumumba, candidate au poste de Secrétaire général de la Francophonie

La refondation proclamée, l'architecture manquante Fille de Patrice Lumumba et ancienne ministre congolaise, Juliana Lumumba porte la candidature de la République démocratique du Congo au poste de Secrétaire général de la Francophonie, dont le titulaire du mandat 2027-2030 sera désigné par les chefs d'État au XXe Sommet de la Francophonie, prévu à Phnom Penh les 15 et 16 novembre 2026. Son audition publique du 30 juin 2026 à Paris, devant les ministres des Affaires étrangères des 53 États membres de plein droit, était particulièrement attendue : sa candidature incarne à la fois le rééquilibrage africain de l'organisation et le face-à-face diplomatique entre Kinshasa et Kigali, dont l'élection est devenue l'un des théâtres. Cet article, deuxième d'une série de cinq consacrée aux auditions, analyse sa prestation sur huit axes : la vision, l'innovation, le développement des communautés locales, la promotion de la langue française, les conflits et la sécurité en...

Le mythe Kagame : pouvoir occidental, jets privés et réalité contrôlée du Rwanda

ANALYSE ET INVESTIGATION Introduction : le mythe et l’homme derrière le mythe Il existe une version de Paul Kagame qui vit dans les salles de conférence de Davos, dans les pages des magazines occidentaux, dans les réunions privées d’hôtels à Londres, Paris et Washington, et sur les manches des maillots de football européens. Dans cette version, Kagame est un visionnaire. Un bâtisseur. Un modernisateur africain discipliné. Un dirigeant qui a sorti un pays brisé des cendres du génocide pour le transformer en ce que ses admirateurs appellent souvent le « Singapour de l’Afrique ». Dans cette version, le Rwanda est propre, efficace, sûr, favorable aux investissements et ordonné. Kagame est présenté comme le dirigeant africain auquel l’Occident veut croire : contrôlé, poli, favorable au marché, centré sur la sécurité et à l’aise dans les espaces d’élite occidentaux. Puis il y a le Rwanda que décrivent de nombreux Rwandais, exilés, journalistes, figures de l’opposition et organisations de déf...

Why Africa Realities Media Is Different

Africa Realities Media speaks to Africa and to the developed world. Many abuses facing African people are committed by African states and ruling elites, but they are often protected by international silence, lobbying, public relations, trade interests, migration deals and unequal global accountability. While governments pay lobbyists to present a good image abroad, ordinary African people continue to face violence, hunger, disease, poverty, repression and exclusion. We challenge the normalisation of African suffering and demand equal truth, equal justice and equal protection.

Pourquoi Africa Realities Media est différent?

Africa Realities Media s’adresse à l’Afrique et au monde développé. De nombreux abus subis par les peuples africains sont commis par des États africains et des élites dirigeantes, mais ils sont souvent protégés par le silence international, le lobbying, les relations publiques, les intérêts commerciaux, les accords migratoires et une responsabilité mondiale inégale. Tandis que des gouvernements paient des lobbyistes pour présenter une bonne image à l’étranger, des Africains ordinaires continuent de faire face à la violence, à la faim, aux maladies, à la pauvreté, à la répression et à l’exclusion. Nous contestons la normalisation de la souffrance africaine et exigeons une vérité égale, une justice égale et une protection égale.

BBC News

Policy and Systems Change

Our work is designed to trigger debate, discomfort and action. We do not only expose injustice; we work for policy and systems change. We want governments and institutions to address the root causes of inequality, disadvantage, discrimination, exclusion and barriers affecting African people. We believe lasting change must be shaped by people with lived experience.

Exposing Injustice in Africa

Africa Realities Media is an independent African accountability platform based in London. We report, analyse and challenge the systems that shape African suffering, silence African victims and protect abusive power. We are not here to repeat diplomatic language. We are here to ask the questions that are often avoided: why are African deaths treated as normal? Why are African victims given less urgency? Why are governments that imprison, exclude, displace or kill their own people protected when they serve powerful international interests?

Africanews

Africa Realities Media gives space to writers, researchers, experts, activists, community voices, campaigners, analysts and people with lived experience who want to contribute thoughtful, responsible and courageous content about the changes needed in the region, as well as the political, economic, cultural and social African realities that are often ignored, minimised or misrepresented. Our articles and videos aim to encourage debate, raise awareness, stimulate critical thinking and support reflection. We seek to help people in the Great Lakes Region understand their rights to human rights, development and wellbeing, while also encouraging decision-makers to be more transparent, responsive and accountable.

Appel à contributions

Sensibilisez le public aux causes qui vous tiennent à cœur. Prenez part au changement que vous souhaitez voir émerger. Aidez à combattre l’injustice partout où elle se manifeste.

Africa Realities Media accueille des articles originaux, analyses, tribunes, réflexions communautaires et commentaires fondés sur des faits concernant la région des Grands Lacs africains, ainsi que les questions liées à la justice, aux droits humains, à la gouvernance, aux conflits, à la paix, aux réfugiés, aux ressources naturelles et à la responsabilité publique en Afrique.

Nous accueillons également les annonces concernant de nouvelles ou d’anciennes publications liées à nos domaines d’intérêt. Vous pouvez annoncer gratuitement votre publication, notamment un livre, un rapport, une étude, un article académique ou tout autre travail pertinent.

Les articles doivent être rédigés en anglais ou en français et ne doivent pas dépasser 1 500 mots.

Veuillez inclure le nom complet de l’auteur, qui sera publié avec l’article s’il est accepté.

Avant de soumettre votre article, veuillez d’abord lire nos pages du site web afin de vérifier si votre article correspond à nos priorités éditoriales, à nos thèmes et à nos domaines d’intérêt.

Si vous avez un article, un commentaire ou une annonce de publication à partager avec un public plus large, veuillez l’envoyer par email à :

africarealitiesmedia@gmail.com

Nous étudierons la possibilité de publier gratuitement les articles et annonces de publications appropriés s’ils répondent à nos critères éditoriaux, notamment la pertinence, la clarté, l’originalité, l’intérêt public, le respect des communautés concernées et l’utilisation responsable des informations et des preuves.

Les articles sont publiés tels qu’ils sont soumis s’ils répondent à nos critères et à notre politique éditoriale. Nous ne procédons pas à une modification supplémentaire de votre article avant sa publication.